RxTA1

Sources // the literature

Thymosin Alpha-1 references: every source, listed

The complete Thymosin Alpha-1 citation list — each study referenced on this site, with its DOI or PubMed link, so you can read the primary literature yourself.

About this list

Every quantitative claim on this site maps to one of the numbered sources below. The list spans the foundational characterization (Goldstein 1977), the mechanism work (Romani 2006, Bozza 2007, Tao 2023), the sepsis trials (ETASS 2013, the null phase-3 TESTS 2025), the COVID-19 cohorts and meta-analysis, the cancer-adjuvant literature, and the comprehensive safety reviews. Where a study is paywalled, its PubMed record still carries the abstract. This is a reading list, not a recommendation — follow the links and read the primary sources.

  1. Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977;74(2):725-729. ↗
  2. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. ↗
  3. Wu J, Pei F, Zhou L, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025;388:e082583. ↗
  4. Dominari A, Hathaway III D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. ↗
  5. Romani L, Bistoni F, Montagnoli C, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. ↗
  6. Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2150-2157. ↗
  7. Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2019;9:873. ↗
  8. Bozza S, Gaziano R, Bonifazi P, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates the TLR9/MyD88/IRF7-dependent murine cytomegalovirus sensing for induction of anti-viral responses in vivo. Int Immunol. 2007;19(11):1261-1270. ↗
  9. Tao N, Xu X, Ying Y, Hu S, Sun Q, Lv G, Gao J. Thymosin alpha1 and Its Role in Viral Infectious Diseases: The Mechanism and Clinical Application. Molecules. 2023;28(8):3539. ↗
  10. Dinetz E, Lee E. Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials. Altern Ther Health Med. 2024. ↗
  11. Pica F, Chimenti MS, Gaziano R, Bue C, Casalinuovo IA, Triggianese P, et al. Serum thymosin alpha1 levels in patients with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 2016;186(1):39-45. ↗
  12. Shang W, Zhang B, Ren Y, Wang W, Zhou D, Li Y. Thymosin alpha1 use in adult COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical outcomes. Int Immunopharmacol. 2022;113(Pt A):109584. ↗
  13. Linye H, Zijing X, Wei P, Chao H, Chuan L, Tianfu W. Thymosin alpha-1 therapy improves postoperative survival after curative resection for solitary hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma: A propensity score matching analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2021;100(20):e25749. ↗
  14. Wang Z, Chen J, Zhu C, Liu L, Qi T, Shen Y, Zhang Y, Xu L, et al. Thymosin Alpha-1 Has no Beneficial Effect on Restoring CD4+ and CD8+ T Lymphocyte Counts in COVID-19 Patients. Front Immunol. 2021;12:568789. ↗
  15. Liu J, Shen Y, Wen Z, Xu Q, Wu Z, Feng H, Li Z, Dong X, et al. Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in the Treatment of COVID-19: A Multicenter Cohort Study. Front Immunol. 2021;12:673693. ↗
  16. Sun Q, Xie J, Zheng R, et al. The effect of thymosin α1 on mortality of critical COVID-19 patients: A multicenter retrospective study. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;90:107143. ↗
  17. Matteucci C, Minutolo A, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Mitigates Cytokine Storm in Blood Cells From Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021;8(1):ofaa588. ↗